Background: The Declaration of Independence

Learn about the background surrounding the Declaration of Independence.

“This was the object of the Declaration of Independence. Not to find out new principles, or new arguments, never before thought of, not merely to say things which had never been said before, but to place before mankind the common sense of the subject, in terms so plain and firm as to command their assent, and to justify ourselves in the independent stand we are compelled to take. Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, not yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion. All it’s [sic] authority rests on the harmonizing sentiments of the day, whether expressed in conversation, letters, printed essays, or in the elementary books of public right, as Aristotle, Cicero, Locke, Sidney, & c.”

—Thomas Jefferson to Henry Lee, May 8, 1825

Essential questions

How do we define the three key principles at the core of the American Revolution: popular sovereignty, natural rights, and the rule of law?
How did the Declaration of Independence embody the key principles of popular sovereignty, natural rights, and the rule of law?
Why did the American colonists declare independence from the British Empire? What constitutional principles were at stake?
How did famous events in the American Revolution—like the Boston Tea Party—interact with the key principles at the heart of the American Revolution?
What factors gave rise to the American Revolution?

Declaring Independence

On July 2, 1776, a unanimous Congress declared independence—adopting a motion introduced by Virginia’s Richard Henry Lee and seconded by John Adams. Here’s the language of the Lee Resolution: “Resolved, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.”

John Adams was cheerful, writing to Abigail: “The Second Day of July 1776 will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America.—I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. . . . It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with Shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more.”

Of course, John Adams was wrong. America would reserve those celebrations—and acts of reverence—for the Fourth of July and the Declaration of Independence. However, in a larger sense, Adams was obviously right. The American Revolution—and the American experiment—was about to begin. So, how did we get the text of the Declaration of Independence?

A “Committee of Five”—John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston—had been working on the Declaration of Independence since June 11, 1776, with Jefferson as the main drafter. But as noted above, Jefferson later admitted that he was merely looking to reflect the “American mind”—bringing together the core principles at the heart of the American Revolution.

The Declaration itself was a formal declaration by Congress that the United States was an independent nation. It provided a list of grievances against King George III. But it also included important statements about popular sovereignty, natural rights, and the rule of law. In fact, we see the whole theory of American government contained in the Declaration of Independence’s famous opening passages.

Three Principles of the American Revolution

As a reminder, there are three key principles at the heart of the American Revolution.

Popular Sovereignty: Popular sovereignty is the idea that a constitution (or a social contract) should establish a government based on the consent of the governed. The sovereign power is held not by a King or by an aristocracy but by the American people. As a concrete example, think of the opening words of the U.S. Constitution. The Preamble reads: “We the People of the United States . . . do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.” That’s popular sovereignty in action.
Natural Rights: Natural rights are rights that are given by God or by nature. They come not from a law passed by the government but rather are inherent in all individual human beings from birth. The Declaration of Independence lists three examples of these natural rights: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
Rule of Law: The rule of law is the basic idea that we have a neutral government of laws, not an arbitrary government of one person. In other words, no one is above the law.

The Principles and the Declaration

With those definitions out of the way, let’s take a look at how all three of these key principles come together in the Declaration of Independence by walking through the Declaration’s famous opening passages.

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”

Here, we see a powerful vision of natural rights. We are all born free and equal. We get our rights from God. We get them from just being us—from being born. And these rights include life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

“That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just power from the consent of the governed . . . .”

Here, we see a powerful vision of popular sovereignty—tied to social contract theory. We give up certain rights to the government and, in return, the government agrees to protect us.

“That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.”

Here, we see a combination of a few different principles. - We see the rule of law through the contract that we made with the government. The government agrees to keep us safe and to protect our lives, our liberty, and our pursuit of happiness. - We see popular sovereignty as the ultimate power lies with us—“We the People.” If the government breaks that contract, then we can take that power back. - Finally, we also see natural rights. What is the most fundamental unalienable right of all? The right to revolution and the right to alter or abolish a government that doesn’t promote our “safety and happiness.” In essence, the right to form a new government.

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