Main content
Course: AI for education > Unit 2
Lesson 1: Video series: AI 101 for teachersPart 1: Fireside chat with Sal Khan and Hadi Partovi
Join Sal Khan (Khan Academy) and Hadi Partovi (Code.org) for a fireside chat on embracing artificial intelligence in the classroom. Teachers can expect a lively discussion including some of the most controversial topics surrounding AI in education. Presented by: Code.org, ETS, ISTE, and Khan Academy. Created by Code.org and Khan Academy.
Want to join the conversation?
- What material (generally) is Khanmingo trained on, and what are its knowledge limitations? Also, when will it be coming out for people who are broke in digital currency? (another way of saying students)(9 votes)
- Khanmingo (at least from what I can understand) seems to be based on GPT-4, the most recent (as of now) Chat-GPT model, so we can infer that Khanmingo is trained on the same information that the GPT-4 model is taught on.(2 votes)
- In the beginning of the video, they said that ChatGPT is able to create videos, art, and writing. But I thought that ChatGPT was a LLM (Large Language Model), trained on only words. How does ChatGPT create multimedia answers?(8 votes)
- Bro, they put Salman Khan on here. I had never seen him talking. A couple of minutes ago I looked him up cause I wondered who created Khan Academy.(3 votes)
- Sal Khan has produced many videos on Khan Academy through the math, science, and ELA courses. Just because you can't see him, doesn't mean he hasn't made videos. Very good videos, saved me from many F's.(4 votes)
- How can we ensure that artificial intelligence systems, particularly those utilizing deep learning algorithms, maintain transparency and interpretability in their decision-making processes, while still achieving high levels of performance in complex tasks such as natural language processing and autonomous driving?
This question addresses the critical balance between transparency and performance, two essential aspects of AI development. It also touches on practical applications, emphasizing the real-world impact of these technologies.(2 votes) - what all can chat gtp do because I use it?(1 vote)
- I have used it to experiment with story prompts. I don’t know it’s full capabilities yet but it’s been very interesting to read it’s stories(1 vote)
- I told a colleague that A.I. may start replacing some teaching in high school in just a few short years. We have to learn how to navigate this new and exciting horizon on education for all. So the big question is how to bring in this new tools to traditional educational models?(1 vote)
Video transcript
Welcome to AI 101 for teachers. My name is Jess. I'm a former teacher
and now specialize in adult learning. I will be your guide
for this professional learning series. Artificial intelligence has become a hot
topic in education, leaving many educators wondering about things like what is AI
or my students going to use AI to cheat? Is AI going to replace me as a teacher? What should I be teaching my students
about AI Throughout
this professional learning series, our goal is to answer these questions
and more, while also equipping you
with the knowledge and skills you will need to navigate
this new landscape. In this session,
we will hear from Hadi Partovi, the creator of code.org, and Sal Khan,
the creator of Khan Academy. Let's hear what Hadi and Sal have to say about some of the biggest questions
related to AI in education. AI has been around for many years, but what's happened
very recently with the launch of ChatGPT and similar tools
is that AI can actually generate information it can generate
creative writing, images, even videos. And so what used to be a tool for pattern
matching can actually create new ideas,
new thoughts. And the reason this is very important
in education is there's so many aspects of education work
that either teachers do or that students do that can now be done
automatically using generative AI. So I know like both of us,
I'm sure as just tech nerds of sorts have been paying attention
to generative AI for many years, and you had GPT2,
which could write and Elon Musk famously said, you know, this has to be controlled in some ways
because it could write very convincing articles,
but it was nonsense what it was writing, so it could be good for generating
fake news. GPT3 did similar things,
although it was just better at it, which in some ways made folks
even more worried. Then things like Dall-E came out where
it showed that you could create images, that you could have, you know, the Mona
Lisa and you could tell the computer or the generative AI to say, well, what's
what's the back of her head look like? Or what is the rest of the scene
actually look like? When I was monitoring all of that over the years,
I was just like, Oh, this is cool. But it's really just a quirky thing. It's not going to be really useful
any time soon, especially in education. And I think what really changed was that transition from GPT3 to either
you could say GPT 3.5, which is Chat GPT or more importantly
GPT4. And that's when it really hit me
that this thing that looked like a novelty for the last several years
now could start to have a seemingly understanding, seemingly understand
information and make sense of it, and not just answer the question,
but explain why it chose that answer. Explain
why the other choices are not the answer. Generate generative. It could generate other questions like it and it could you could prompt it
so that it could act as a tutor. It could act as a teaching assistant.
And so that's when we started to appreciate, okay,
the world is now different. And this is not only going to be relevant
to education, but it's probably going to transform it
in some pretty significant ways. When you use a tool like ChatGPT or any tool
that's generating text or code as an AI, these are based on an underlying
technology called a large language model. And a large language
model is basically a giant neural network that is trained on all sorts
of information, all the books or articles or code that it can find on the Internet,
and then can then actually generate new information, new essays, stories,
even writing new code and it's worth understanding that
this technology is not truly intelligent. It is just using statistics
and probabilities to generate new information at Code.org,
we're actually creating a video series explaining
exactly how large language models work. And in fact, the chief technology officer of OpenAI Mira Murati,
is one of the stars of this video to talk about basically
an explanation of large language models. But one thing I will say,
because people have said, oh, is this statistically figuring out
the next best word to say in a lot of ways is starting to teach us
a little bit about ourselves. like even when I'm talking right now,
you know, when I'm speaking in oral language, I'm just expressing
a series of thoughts that are coming. And I'm not consciously deciding each
next word. I just know that the next word
is going to be whatever it is going to be. So large language
models to your memory is a neural. It's neural net. Neural nets are computer essentially
computer simulations of neurons and synapses. And they're starting to approach the complexity of at least large
chunks of the human brain. We're not at a point where A.I. is conscious self or has its own motivations and desires
other than what we ask it to do. But yeah, it's worth noting that
the probabilities and statistics, the numbers inside of an AI in
generative AI or large language models are basically literally
the computer equivalent of the synapses and the connections
in the nerves in your brain, and you have trillions
of nerves in your brain. And then the strength of all
those synapses is what forms your memories, creates your thoughts,
and gives you all of your intelligence. In a large language model that's being simulated across
literally millions of computers. And is that intelligence? It's at least a representation
of how your brain works. And it's interesting
that they this works on math. Your brain works on neurons, but the outputs of what a large language
model provides are quite similar
to what humans view themselves. I think pretty much anybody working in
education is surprised. was surprised to be able to ask AI to write an essay about the Civil War
or explain photosynthesis or create a short story about a princess
living on Mars, or write the code to, you know, to reverse, to shuffle
a deck of cards, whatever it is. These are things that you might think
of as homework or as exams for teachers. You can just ask them
to make a lesson plan or to make a presentation
about some topic in history. And it pretty much does all of it
pretty well and is really causing a need to rethink how we do education
and what's even 100% agree. What's even more amazing than that is it can answer these questions
and do these tasks, but then you could even ask it
to take on roles and personas. You can say be Robin Williams and Dead Poets Society
and inspire me about literature. And it did it. And that's what that's
what it's like. This. This is getting weird. it's hard for schools to say what tools you do or don't use
when you do your homework. So the reality of the way homework is taught or assigned in most schools
today, lots of it can be done automatically with a AI
when ChatGPT first came out, I showed it on the first day to
my son he’s 16 and his first question is
can I use this for homework? He was like excited
and then was about to answer. He said, actually, what's the point of school
if this can even do all these things? And those two questions
are sort of the two bounds of what I think educators need to think about. Because if we just continue
assigning homework the way we have been, yes,
you can use AI to do that. And you could argue that that's cheating. But I actually think we need to evolve
what we think about as being the work that students need to do at home. Your point about homework. You have very little control
about what happens. But I think in some ways it's the signs,
a healthy spotlight. Because before Chat GPT
you had chat big sister or or some people had parents or tutors and a lot of poorer
kids did not have any of those things. The biggest inequity
that forms in our school system is when the kids aren't in school. It happens when you assign homework, you
or I can help our kids, or we might help get you get a family member to do it,
or we might be able to hire a tutor. A lot of families can't afford to do that. That's where the inequity develops. And if you can do
more in school, the better. When you think about equity and AI,
there's two almost opposite things going on. On the one hand, a AI closes an equity gap
in that every student who has access to it now can get basically
a low cost, personalized tutor. They can get a lot of things
done that in the past you needed
basically more money to get done. AI basically provides
a superpower to anybody who has access. On the flip side,
the student who doesn't have Internet access doesn't have a device,
whether it's a phone or a computer, is actually now farther behind,
because they may see the gap of not having computer
became more costly than it was before. Because here's this yet
another superpower that you don't have. A.I. technology
as a whole can have strengths and benefits, as we've talked about,
but it also has downsides and risks. It makes mistakes that could
create misinformation it can have biases. It can have either a political bias
or a racial or gender bias. It might have it might get tricked
into creating dangerous content. There's all sorts of potential pitfalls. And this is part of why
schools and educators are have in many cases, hit on the brakes to say,
let's not jump into this too quickly. But it's worth noting that there isn't
a single tool that is all of AI. There's multiple tools coming out,
some of which are general purpose, like ChatGPT, which is not even licensed
for use by students under the age of 18. But there's tons of tools
that are being created specifically for the purpose of education. Khan Academy is Khanmigo
being a great example of that, where these tools have done
specific things to protect against these risks
and these these downsides to protect student privacy,
to prevent the creation of misinformation or hallucination or biases
or or or dangerous content. So the most important jobs educators
or at least education I.T. departments need to think about
is not whether you ban AI or allow AI. It's really choosing
which tools are the ones you which AI tools are the ones that are ready for
education that address these downsides. Yeah, I couldn't agree more
and even on those very real downsides, like bias and misinformation
and making mistakes, hallucinations. I also always point out that, you know,
compared to what is already there and what also has bias and misinformation,
the Internet has all of those issues. Other human beings
have all of those issues. And there's often
not the transparency where you can audit what's what, what was said or what
what bias might be introduced. So in some ways
it's just an extension of a lot of that. We were working on generative AI and large language models
from about mid 2022. And then we all remember end of November
ChatGPT comes out But that took the world by storm
because when you chat with it, it just seemed to feel a little bit
more magical as we all remember. But immediately the education community
and teachers, rightfully so. Wait, this thing can write essays
and I'm sure a lot of students realize that this thing could write essays
and it was a cheating tool. And I was really worried
because I was like, Yeah, yes, it can be a cheating tool and charge you,
but it was not designed for education. So in March when we were able to to launch
what we call Khanmigo, we were able to show that not only can
you mitigate some of that, you can create generative AIs that have guardrails,
everything that a student does, it's monitored by a teacher. You can have a second AI monitor what the student's doing with it,
so they do anything shady, whether it's unproductive, unhealthy behavior
all the way to cheating, it can actively notify the parents
or actively notify the teacher. And then on top of that, create ways. So the AI isn't doing the work for you,
but doing it with you. So if you ask Khanmigo to write your paper,
it won't. But to say I can do your writing coach. And so we think the future is actually
going to be there's going to be certain task where I think teachers will say,
yes, use whatever tool you want, because that's happening in the workforce
where sometimes you do want to use these tools
to maybe write some parts or give you some revision or craft
some parts of what you're doing. But then there's going to be other places
where teachers will say, I need to make sure
you're writing this yourself. So what we're doing on our side, we're trying to create those tools
where teachers can assign through the AI, the AI can work with the student
and the AI can report back to the teacher. Yeah, I worked with them. We did some outlining,
we did some brainstorming. I give them some feedback
and this is where they are now. And this is even my first pass
at how they did according to the rubric When educators think about generative AI, the first thing they hear about
or think about often is ChatGPT because of its popularity
and because it was the first popular sort of generative AI tool
that took the world by storm. But it's worth noting that
almost every tool in tech is going to have an element of generative
AI built into it. And this is actually most relevant
as some schools early on band ChatGPT just to sort of
say like, can we stop this and figure it out? we should recognize that Microsoft Word
is going to have generative AI it will just create documents for you, PowerPoint or Google
slides or Google Spreadsheets or Excel. They will generate formulas or generate
slides. There's even an app called Gamma
that will generate an entire presentation start to bottom. You just give it a topic,
it'll give you an outline, you edit the outline, it generates
the entire presentation for you. There's coding tools
that automatically write code, and many of these are built on the same
underlying technology as ChatGPT. You know, large language models. Yeah, but it's not. There's not just one tool. It'll be impossible to ban
this in education because we won't be banning Microsoft
Word and Google Docs use it in schools. So schools need to figure out
how to embrace that this technology is going to be available. There's going to be tools like Khanmigo that are designed
specifically for education, and then there's going to be tools that
are designed for general purpose work. But schools will need to figure out
that students will have access to these, whether they like it or not. There's a lot of sort of questions
being raised about is AI going to replace jobs and there may be some jobs
that are completely replaced. But when it comes to teaching, I'm quite
sure we're not going to have less of a need for teachers globally. The world has a massive teacher shortage. If I can simply help
make the job of teaching easier, reduce the sort of hardship of teaching
and enable more personalized learning, we might at least get to a point
where we no longer have teacher shortages. We're far from a worry of teachers losing
jobs or we have such a dramatic shortage. And what I believe AI is going to do
is enable more personalized learning and less busy work
on the job of the teacher, more coaching and facilitating and working with that kid
who has a something is blocking them or they're struggling with something
or they need a motivation boost or whatnot where so much of a teacher's
day is busy doing things that aren't directly with that student. AI should help us get us to a world where teachers spend
more one on one time with students. And that is not about job
losses in education. It's about really empowering teachers
to do the work that they really got into the field to do. I couldn't agree with you more. When I think of the jobs that are safest
in this generative AI world, anything that is really about
that human connection and about kind of elevating
and almost being the conductor and of other human beings I think
are going to be a very good place to be. And generative AI is going to make that job
a lot more sustainable. To your point, the reason why we have the shortage
is because so much teacher burnout. If you can take the administrative things
off of a teacher's plate and also give them ways to support their students
better in a more differentiated way, they're going to be enjoying their work. More of what I've told a lot of teachers
is imagine if all of a sudden the Department of Education or your
district said, hey, good news everyone, we somehow found budget to give
every one of you five teaching assistants who are just going to be there,
do what you need, help you with lesson plans, help you grade papers, help
you work with your students, answer questions when you're not,
but they're going to report back to you and they're going to do
exactly what you want. I think every teacher would celebrate. That's what's about to happen The center of AI is going to touch every industry
at every possible part of it. And I do want to make clear a lot of people
have started to differentiate, which I think is an important thing
between jobs and tasks. I think it's going to allow a lot of folks
to do more tasks more productively, but it's not going to replace,
in many cases, whole whole jobs. So pretty much any job
where you have to do any type of writing, I think you're going to have a productivity improvement
at least 2x, probably more. Any job
where you have to create presentations, you have to create any type of artifact, probably any job that involves
working with a computer in any way is going to become in some way not replaced by AI but easier by AI,
which means whether you're writing a code, whether you're reviewing contracts,
if you're writing a patent, if you're reviewing a patent, if you're creating marketing,
if you're posting to social media, if you're creating a spreadsheet
or analyzing data with a spreadsheet every year,
from marketing to sales to accounting, you name
AI isn't going to replace your job. It'll make your job easier because certain tasks that are repetitive
will become completely automated. Certain tasks
where you might have writer's block AI might make the first draft for you
or help you out or give you corrections to basically reduce
the time and expense to get the job done. One of the things that’s important
when you think about how much all digital work is going to be impacted
by AI is recognizing how critical it is that our education system teaches students
what this is, how to use it, how it works, and what are its risks,
what are its strengths and weaknesses. Because right now most adults
just treat it as a sort of magical tool oh it just came out and it's magic, but it's important to actually understand
the underpinnings of what is a large language model, realizing
that it's using statistics to generate its thoughts, to realize
that that statistical generation is why it can make mistakes and recognizing
that it's been trained on data. So the data that it's used to figure out
what it's creating could have biases, could have, you know, it's missing
gaps in the data, things like that. It's important for students to,
as they get prepared for this workforce of the future,
to know how the technology they're using in these future
jobs is actually working. So one thing that a lot of non teachers
don't realize, but every teacher realizes
is that almost half of their time is grading papers, writing progress reports, generating lesson plans,
and not in the class, not it might be happening in a classroom,
but it's not facing the students. And that's above and beyond
all of the issues around. In a typical classroom,
you might have three or four or five grade levels of students, and so you're trying to differentiate
and address all that. But generative AI, we think
is going to be a huge gift to teachers. Almost everything else in edtech,
even if it's very valuable. A lot of stuff
we've historically done, it kind of can we think it can really enhance
what's happening in the classroom. But teachers like, oh, it's just one more thing for me to learn
and I'm already I'm already burnt out. But what's exciting about generative
AI that let's call it ten, 15, 20 hours a week where teachers are writing
lesson plans, writing progress reports, rubrics, etc., etc., grading papers
that might over the next few years come from 15 hours, 20 hours
a week down to a few hours a week. So that's going to save a lot of time
and energy for teachers one to recharge themselves
because they're getting spread too thin and also have more time and energy
for their students. And that, of course, is going to help them
create more differentiated instruction. It's going to be able to support them
as teaching assistants. It's going to be able support the students as tutors
or teaching assistants in the classroom. So they'll also be able to to personalize
more for their students. Yeah, some of this is stuff
that is already available and a lot of it is going to be worked
into the tools that teachers already use to make grading easier or creating rubrics or even testing work against the rubrics
is something that AI can now do for you. So lots of tools are going to be incorporating this into them
to make teachers lives easier. Even before ChatGPT and generative AI,
people are like, you know, the world is changing so fast,
what the kids need to learn. And they're oftentimes surprised that I said, well, you know,
it's actually the same traditional skills. If you learn to write really well,
if you have a solid knowledge base, say, of civics, financial literacy, if you have a you know how to use tools well, and increasingly,
these are going to be technological tools. You have strong critical thinking skills,
as you know, probably at least as an algebra early algebra type
type of level, some statistics, knowledge, you're going to be quite potent
in any point in history. And I think that's going to be even more
so in this generative AI revolution. A lot of people say, well, well, the generative AI can write papers
now, the generative AI is going to be able
to solve the math problem. But one way to think about
it is students of the future are going to have to manage
these generative AI. And if I told you that somebody is going to be an editor of a newspaper,
they wouldn't have to manage writers. Does that
person need to know how to write? And you're like, not only do they need to know how to write,
they don't know how to write better now because they're going to be managing
other people. They're going to act as an editor. So generative AI doesn't
give us a free pass to say, Oh, no one has to learn any of this stuff
anymore. For the folks who want to operate in the
knowledge economy and want to have really well-positioned careers,
they need to elevate above the generative AI and know
how to manage those generative AI. So that means
not just understanding the tools, but actually it means understanding
the underlying skills of the generative. AI is doing better than the AI itself. if I think about the skills that are going
to be most relevant for the future, it's those things that you mentioned critical thinking, problem
solving, reading, writing. I also think digital skills,
both knowing how to use digital tools but also actually understanding how they work, are going to be more
and more important in the workplace. People also ask me all the time
because I run Code.org whether coding jobs are going to disappear
because AI can now write code
and it's very similar to writing. AI can write essays. Do we stop teaching writing anymore? I don't think anybody is questioning
whether we should stop teaching people to write
because writing is a form of communication and for the exact same reason
we shouldn't stop teaching coding. as you mentioned,
basically the person who knows how to code just got a superpower because they can
manage a team of coders that are AI just like a person who knows how to write gained a new superpower
because AI could do They now have a team of writers. Yeah. No one's going to be able to. Maybe people are going to be able
to create prototypes of apps without being able to code,
but you're not going to be able to create a real app
that you could put out into the world because you're not going to know
all of the edge cases, the security holes, the performance issues that it might face. You need to know how to code. We’re in this moment right now where
because of ChatGPT and large language models we're all imagining that AI is going to be
the thing that we for the most part chat with. I think a lot of people
are thinking about, oh well you could put text to speech
and speech to text and you could start to, to talk with it the way that you might do
it, Siri or Alexa. But what we're starting to see
is technologies where the large language models can, even though their language
models can also understand writing, and they can also generate images. So these different dimensions
of generative AI are starting to converge. So it's going to be really interesting
over the coming years, probably in a 3 to 5 year time horizon
where you're going to, a generative AI or an AI is going to be able
to make sense of students writing. It's going to be able to talk with them,
it's going to be able to listen in, in conversations, and it's going to be
able to make make insights about them. So it's a really interesting time
where the chat, the traditional chat interface
that we all know from ChatGPT, I think might just be the stepping stone
to something much richer. How long how far away do you
think we are from a point where an AI tutor is actually something that you can see
and speak to and hear its responses? I think 2025, 2026
you'll be able to video conference with an AI tutor
and it'll be pretty thoughtful. It'll be able to remember you. It'll have insights about you. I think the other trend that AI has almost leapfrogged in certain ways, but Apple now is introducing
its virtual reality headset. But I have a feeling that it can take
a little bit longer for that to get mainstream. That's probably more in the 5 to 10 year
horizon. But yeah, in ten years
I could imagine that it almost feels like you're in the room with a with an AI if
you if you, if you have your goggles on. But you're going to be able to zoom
with an AI and in the next three years, I don’t know about the virtual reality part just because of the weight on the head
for video conferencing with an AI having a personal human like tutor I agree is on the order of five years
away. It's worth it for anybody
in education to think about what is the world going to be like
when every student with a computer, with an Internet access
actually can get a one on one tutor? It is a great story from the standpoint
of equity, because today only the wealthiest families can get one on one
tutoring for their kids. And now it's going to be something
that not just with chatting, but even talking is going to be available. so so if I'm a teacher who's new
to this world of generative AI,
first I would tell them, breathe, relax. Even though it feels like
the world is moving very fast. Just the fact that you are thinking about it right now
means that you're still on an early, you're on the cutting edge, you know,
no need, no need to worry. So especially if you have a few cycles,
if it's over the summer or if it's over a holiday,
start playing with these tools. You could go to something like ChatGPT
and you could probably make it immediately useful to yourself, say, Hey, help me
plan a lesson and help me create a rubric. Use Khanmigo, Khanmigo
has special purpose, prompts and and layers in there that have the best practices of
what does a good rubric look like? What is a good lesson plan look like? We have activities for teachers where they can refresh their own knowledge
before they go into a lesson. It can also help create exit
tickets, lesson plans, rubrics, learning objectives. And then there's a whole bunch
of activities for students. Some of them are just classic tutor me
and in STEM or tutor me in the humanities, Let's have a conversation
with George Washington or we're about to read or we've just read the first three
chapters of The Great Gatsby. We have a special guest today,
kids, Jay Gatsby himself. And then you could
this isn't science fiction that sounds like science fiction, but
literally this exists on on Khanmigo today. And teachers can start playing
with it literally right now. You can also ask AI to give you a creative way
to teach a certain topic. You know, if you've had the same way,
you've taught something, but you want to mix it up a little,
what's a creative way to teach and then enter the name of the topic
and it'll come up with ideas that might not be ones
that the teachers thought of already. So it's a great tool
for brainstorming with. On that point. Our most one of our most
used activities by teachers already is create a lesson hook
which is exactly that a lesson a lesson hook like how do I get the kids
excited? And we've been impressed
with how creative the AI can get. And once again, it's not about deferring
the creativity to the AI. What happens is if you have
two creative people in the room, it doesn't make one person less creative
it makes them both more creative. So we've seen teachers riff with the
and they're like, Well, what about this? And this is like,
Oh yeah, and what about this? And then that gets it gets better
and better is to a place that neither party
would have done on their own. People
talk about the risks of aid education. I actually think the biggest risk is doing
nothing is just saying we're going to teach everything
the exact same way. We always have them in sort of the head
stand approach of just like, let's let's let's hope this technology goes away or prevent it
from being used in our classrooms. The biggest risk is teaching the exact
same subjects the exact same way. The real opportunity with AI is
the job of teaching can become easier. The job of learning can become more
engaging and more personalized and just more creative. And also some of the old stuff
we may not need to teach anymore. And there's new skills
that students can learn. They can learn creating with AI and develop superpowers
that kids from last century didn't have. Wow. There sure is a lot of potential
in AI for education. In the next session
of this Professional Learning series, we will dig deeper into AI as we explore what AI is and how teachers can use generative
AI for tasks such as lesson planning, creating classroom resources
and saving time on administrative tasks. If you are a teacher who constantly
feels like there just isn't enough time in the day, you definitely don't
want to miss Session 2 Demystifying AI for Educators. In the meantime, be sure to check out
our two new instructional videos. One video is all about chat
bots and large language models. The other video addresses questions
such as Does AI really have creativity and imagination? These videos are a great way for teachers and students
to learn more about generative AI and how it works, visit the AI 101
for Teachers website at code.org/ai101. to view these videos
and additional resources from Code.org, ETS, ISTE and Khan Academy. Thanks for joining us.
See you again In Session 2.