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Course: World History Project - Origins to the Present > Unit 3

Lesson 9: Other Materials
Arts and humanities
World History Project - Origins to the Present
Era 3—Cities, Societies, and Empires (6,000 BCE to 700 CE)
Other Materials
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READ: Pre-contact Americas

Google Classroom
You thought the Aztecs were ancient? A whole millennia before them, states in Mesoamerica and the Andes overcame geographic obstacles to form a variety of kingdoms that traded, fought, and thrived.
The article below uses “Three Close Reads”. If you want to learn more about this strategy, click here.

First read: preview and skimming for gist

Before you read the article, you should skim it first. The skim should be very quick and give you the gist (general idea) of what the article is about. You should be looking at the title, author, headings, pictures, and opening sentences of paragraphs for the gist.

Second read: key ideas and understanding content

Now that you’ve skimmed the article, you should preview the questions you will be answering. These questions will help you get a better understanding of the concepts and arguments that are presented in the article. Keep in mind that when you read the article, it is a good idea to write down any vocab you see in the article that is unfamiliar to you.
By the end of the second close read, you should be able to answer the following questions:
  1. We have no written records or art depicting specific rulers from Teotihuacan, so what evidence does the author present that it was a powerful city and state?
  2. The author argues that Maya society was a collection of city-states. What is a city-state, and how did the local environment help to promote a city-state system rather than one centralized state?
  3. The Andes region in South America features mountains, deserts, and a coast rather than river valleys. How did Andean societies manage to develop agriculture and form states in this environment?

Third read: evaluating and corroborating

Finally, here are some questions that will help you focus on why this article matters and how it connects to other content you’ve studied.
At the end of the third read, you should be able to respond to these questions:
  1. Because the Americas were populated somewhat later than most of Eurasia or Africa, it would be logical to think that states probably developed a bit later there. According to this article and others in the course, does the evidence suggest that to be the case?
  2. Given that there isn’t a lot of written evidence for early Mesoamerican and Andean societies (perhaps other than Maya societies), what kinds of evidence would you expect scholars to use to figure out how they operated and what people’s experiences were like?
Now that you know what to look for, it’s time to read! Remember to return to these questions once you’ve finished reading.

Pre-contact Americas

Drawn model of a city made up of several structures, some of which are pyramid-shaped and others of which are flat-roofed. There is a wall around the perimeter of the city.
By Eman M. Elshaikh (adapted from Khan Academy)
You thought the Aztecs were ancient? A whole millennia before them, states in Mesoamerica and the Andes overcame geographic obstacles to form a variety of kingdoms that traded, fought, and thrived.

City of the gods

Northeast of Mexico City, surrounded by lakes, the ruins of a once-massive city still inspire awe. A four-mile-long avenue runs through the remains of a complex grid. The avenue cuts through numerous apartments and colorful murals, and then leads up to a pyramid that's over 700 feet tall and 700 feet wide! Basically, imagine a giant mound the height of San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge—but also as tall as it is wide. This massive architectural feat is no modern structure. It's over two thousand years old.
A photograph of the Pyramid of the Moon in the ruins of Teotihuacán, Mexico. The pyramid is composed of about three stepped levels plus a multi-tiered mini-pyramid at the entrance. The surrounding countryside is green, covered with trees, with some big hills in the background.
A photograph of the Pyramid of the Moon in the ruins of Teotihuacán, Mexico. The pyramid is composed of about three stepped levels plus a multi-tiered mini-pyramid at the entrance. The surrounding countryside is green, covered with trees, with some big hills in the background. Pyramid of the Moon, Teotihuacán. By Daniel Case, CC BY-SA 3.0.
The Aztecs who discovered the city long after its collapse named it Teotihuacán, roughly translated as "city of the gods." Unfortunately, no written records or art depicting specific rulers survive from Teotihuacán itself. But other archeological methods show that the city center wielded enormous power between 300 and 600 CE. Teotihuacán likely housed 200,000 people in the city itself, governed the surrounding 10,000 square miles directly, and used its armies to colonize other regions as far as 600 miles away.
Photograph shows the bright-red golden gate bridge against a blue sky and green hillsides.
For comparison’s sake, the Golden Gate Bridge! Connecting San Francisco to Marin County in California, the bridge is 4,200 feet long and 746 feet tall. Public Domain.
What made Teotihuacán so powerful? Despite many unanswered questions about this city, we know that its growth and feats of urban planning show that it had a powerful centralized government. The intricate urban grid and the massive temples must have required a coordinated effort and plenty of money.
We also know that Teotihuacán traded with other societies. For example, tools made of obsidian—that black, shiny material made of volcanic glass that's great for tools and weapons—were found in Maya territory. Similarly, Teotihuacán-style pottery has been found throughout Mesoamerica. This serves as evidence of Teotihuacán's reach and expansion in the region.
A tall, oblong-shaped slab of stone that features elaborate carvings.
Stela 31 has been described as the greatest Early Classic sculpture to survive at Tikal. A long hieroglyphic text is carved onto the back of the monument. It describes the arrival of Siyaj K'ak', who some historians believe to be a powerful military general from Teotihuacán. By Greg Willis, CC BY-SA 2.0.
The city's reach is also evident in documents from the Maya city of Tikal recording the arrival of the Teotihuacán military in 378 CE. These writings also suggest that Teotihuacán became involved in the local government. This pattern echoes other examples in the early Americas where leaders sought to build states in order to control resources and create more cohesive (united) societies.

The Maya: independent city-states

The Maya people inhabited Mesoamerica after the Olmec in what is now southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador. Complex Maya societies—including city-states—arose in many areas, and local lords struggled with one another for power and access to trade networks and goods. Surviving artwork from the time suggests that these rulers held considerable power in their own kingdoms and were possibly seen as divine.
A detailed male figure carved out of wood in a seated position. His hands are placed together at his heart and his eyes are closed.
This Mirror-Bearer figure is the best-preserved example of Maya wood sculpture from the Early Classic period (ca. A.D. 250–550). This figure represents a royal court dwarf, which was thought to have divine powers. By The Metropolitan Museum of Art, public domain.
Starting in the third century BCE, Maya people settled in the fertile highlands of modern Guatemala. One major city, Kaminaljuyú,—near what is now Guatemala City— boasted impressive temples and access to trade routes into central Mexico. In the fourth century CE, however, Teotihuacán colonized the Kaminaljuyú.
A zoomed-in map of modern-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador—the former area of Maya society. The map shows the Guatemalan highlands on the west coast, the Gulf of Honduras to the south, and the Gulf of Mexico to the north.
A zoomed-in map of modern-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and El Salvador—the former area of Maya society. The map shows the Guatemalan highlands on the west coast, the Gulf of Honduras to the south, and the Gulf of Mexico to the north. By Simon Burchell, CC BY-SA 4.0.
As empires go, Maya was not as cohesive or expansive as most. Across Mesoamerica many rulers jostled for power even as the difficult geographical features challenged urban and agricultural development. Maya cities were located in diverse environments ranging from rainforest to highlands, which made governing over multiple cities problematic.

The Andes: innovations in agriculture

Early communities in the Andes region—modern Peru and Bolivia—faced geographical hurdles just as the Maya did. The towering Andes mountain range and coastal deserts made it tough for different societies to come together. On the plus side, snow runoff from those mountains trickled into a network of rivers, and that was great for agriculture. The Moche society on the northern coast of Peru developed a successful irrigation system and harvested maize, cotton, beans, and squash.
A picture of terraced farmlands in modern-day Peru shows thirteen tiered rows of farmland that look like grassy steps. A mountain range is in the background.
A picture of terraced farmlands in modern-day Peru shows thirteen tiered rows of farmland that look like grassy steps. A mountain range is in the background. By Alexson Scheppa Peisino, public domain.
Farther east, the Wari people in the northern highlands used the mountains themselves as a means of tiered agriculture. They irrigated the hillsides using the melted snow that flowed down from the mountains. Evidence also shows the Wari kingdom developed city planning and roadways that connected its major city to trade networks.
Andean kingdoms sought to control trade and imports such as seafood from the coast and potatoes and quinoa from the high plains. Kingdoms made sure to put their large cities at lower elevations for easier access to trade routes and imports.
Although they did not create expansive empires, early states in Mesoamerica and the Andes did build states with many of the complex features we associate with empires. They had centralized governments, irrigation for crops, and roadways for travel and trade to bring wealth back to the capitals. They also had armies to defend and enlarge their territories. We don't know the full reach of power that cities like Teotihuacán claimed, but we can conclude that their success must have been the result of a centralized government and technology.
Author bio
Eman M. Elshaikh is a writer, researcher, and teacher who has taught K-12 and undergraduates in the United States and in the Middle East and written for many different audiences. She teaches writing at the University of Chicago, where she also completed her master’s in social sciences, focusing on history and anthropology. She was previously a World History Fellow at Khan Academy, where she worked closely with the College Board to develop curriculum for AP World History.

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