Linear regression and correlation
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Estimating the line of best fit
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Correlation and Causality
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Squared Error of Regression Line
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Proof (Part 1) Minimizing Squared Error to Regression Line
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Proof Part 2 Minimizing Squared Error to Line
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Proof (Part 3) Minimizing Squared Error to Regression Line
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Proof (Part 4) Minimizing Squared Error to Regression Line
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Regression Line Example
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Second Regression Example
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R-Squared or Coefficient of Determination
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Calculating R-Squared
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Covariance and the Regression Line
Covariance and the Regression Line Covariance, Variance and the Slope of the Regression Line
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- What I want to do in this video is introduce you
- to the idea of the covariance between 2 random variables.
- It's defined as
- the expected value of the product of the distances of each random variable from their mean
- or from their expected value. So let me just write that down.
- So I'll have X first. I'll do it in another color.
- It's the expected value of random variable minus expected value of X.
- You could view this as the population mean of X.
- Times-- and then this is random variable Y-- so times the distance from Y
- to its expected value or the population mean of Y.
- If it doesn't make a lot of sense yet,
- well, you can just always think about what it's doing, playing around with some numbers here.
- but the reality is it's saying how much they vary together.
- So you always take an X and a Y for each of the data points. At the
- whole population, every X and Y, they kind of go together with each other that are coordinate.
- You put into this. What happens is
- let's say that X is above its mean when Y is below its mean.
- So let's say in the population, you had the point.
- So one instantiation of the random variables, you have--
- you sample once from the universe, and you get X=1 and Y=3.
- And you knew ahead of time that E[X] is 0.
- And let's say E[Y]=4.
- So in this situation, what just happened?
- Now we don't know the entire covariance. We only have 1 sample here for this random variable.
- But what just happened here?
- We have one minus-- we're not gonna calculate the entire expected value.
- I just want to calculate what happens what's inside the expected value.
- We'll have 1-0. So you'll have a 1 times a 3-4, times a -1.
- So 1 times -1 is -1.
- What is that telling us? Well, it's telling us at least for this sample,
- this one time that we sampled our random variables X and Y,
- X was above its expected value,
- when Y was below its expected value.
- Let's say for the entire population this happened.
- Then it would make sense that they have negative covariance.
- When one goes up, the other one goes down. When one goes down, the other one goes up.
- If they both go up together, they would have a positive covariance.
- If they both go down together,
- and the degree to which they do it together, will tell you de magnitude of the covariance.
- Hopefully, that gives you a little bit of intuition about what the covariance is trying to tell us.
- But the more important thing I want to do in this video, is to connect this formula,
- this definition of covariance, to everything we've been doing with least square regression.
- Really, it's kind of fun math thing to do, to show you all these connections,
- where the definition of covariance really becomes useful.
- I really do think it's motivated to a large degree by where it shows up in regressions.
- This is all stuff that we've kind of seen before. You'll just see it in a different way.
- In this whole video, I'm gonna rewrite this definition of covariance over here.
- So this is going to be the same thing as the expected value of--
- I'm just gonna multiply these 2 binomials here--
- so the expected value of our random variable X times our random variable Y,
- minus-- I'll just do X's first-- so plus X times -E[Y].
- So I'll just say - X times E[Y].
- Negative sign comes from this negative sign right over here.
- And then we have -E[X] times Y.
- This is doing the distributive property twice.
- And then finally, you have the -E[X] time -E[Y].
- And the negatives cancel out.
- And you're just going to have plus E[X] times E[Y].
- And of course it's the expected value of this entire thing.
- Now let's see if we can rewrite this.
- The expected value of the sum and difference of a bunch of random variables
- is just the sum or difference their expected values. So this is going to be the same thing--
- Remember, expected value, in a lot of context, you can view it just as arithmetic mean.
- Or in a continuous distribution, you can view it as a probability weighted sum or integral.
- Either way. We've seen it before, I think.
- So let's rewrite this.
- This is equal to the expected value of the random variables, X and Y, X times Y.
- I'm trying to keep it color coded for you.
- And then we have minus X times E[Y].
- So then we're going to have - E [X time E[Y]].
- Stay with the right colors.
- Then you're going to have -E[E[X] times Y].
- This might look really confusing with all these embedded expected values.
- But one of the ways to think about it is, the
- things that already have the expected values can just be viewed as numbers, as knowns.
- Usually, we'll take them out of the expected value,
- because the expected value of the expected value is the same thing as the expected value.
- Actually, let me write this over here, just to remind ourselves.
- The expected value of the expected value of X is just going to be the expected value of X.
- Think of it this way, you can view this as the population mean of the random variable.
- So that's going to be a known. It's out there in the universe.
- So the expected value of that is going to be itself.
- If the population mean or the expected value of X is 5,
- this is like saying the expected value of 5.
- The expected value of 5 is going to be 5.
- Hopefully that will make sense. We'll use that in a second.
- So we're almost done. We did the expected value of this, and we have one term left.
- The final term, the expected value of this guy.
- And here we can actually use property-- I'll just write it down.
- So the expected value of E[X] times E[Y].
- Let's see if we can simplify here.
- So this is just going to be the expected value of the product of these random variables.
- I'll just leave that the way it is.
- So the expected value of XY.
- Now what do we have over here?
- We have the expected value of X times--
- once again, you can go back to what we've just said. This is just gonna be a number, E[Y].
- So we can just bring this out.
- If this was the expected value of 3X,
- it would be the same thing as 3 times E[X].
- So we could rewrite this as E[Y] times E[X].
- So you can view it as we factor it out of the expected value.
- So just like that. And then you have minus--
- Same thing over here. You can factor out this E[X].
- Minus E[X] times E[Y].
- This is getting confusing with all the E's around.
- And then finally, you have the expected value of this thing, of two expected values.
- That's just going to be product of those two expected values.
- So that's just going to be plus E[X] times E[Y].
- Now what do we have here? We have E[Y] times E[X].
- And then we're subtracting E[X]?E[Y].
- These two things are exactly the same thing.
- So this is going to be-- we're actually subtracting it twice, and then we have one more.
- These are all the same thing.
- This is E[Y]?E[X].
- This is E[Y]?E[X], just in different order.
- And this is E[Y]?E[X].
- We're subtracting it twice, then we're adding it.
- Or the other way to think about it, this guy and that guy will cancel out.
- But what do we have left? We have the covariance of these 2 random variables X and Y,
- equal to the expected value of--
- I'll switch back to my colors, just because it's the final result.
- E[XY] - E[Y]E[X].
- Now you can calculate these expected values if you know everything about the
- probability distribution or density functions for each of these random variables,
- or if you have the entire population that you're sampling from
- whenever you take an instantiation of these random variables.
- But let's say you just had a sample of these random variables, how could you estimate it?
- Well, if you're estimating it, let's say you just have a bunch of data points,
- a bunch of coordinates-- I think we'll start to see how this relates to what we do with regression.
- The expected value of XY can be approximated by the sample mean of the product of X and Y.
- You take each of your X Y associations, take the product,
- and then take the mean of all of them. That's going to be the product of X and Y.
- Then this thing right over here, E[Y], can be approximated by the sample mean of Y.
- And E[X] can be approximated by the sample mean of X.
- So what can the covariance of 2 random variables be approximated by?
- Well, this right here is the mean of their product from your sample.
- Minus the mean of your sample Y's, times the mean of your sample X's.
- And this should start looking a little bit familiar. Because what is this?
- This was the numerator when we were trying to figure the slope of the regression line.
- Let me just rewrite the formula here just to remind you.
- It was literally the mean of the products of each of our data points, or the x, y's,
- minus the mean of y's, times the mean of the x's,
- all of that over, the mean of the x squareds-- or you can even view it as the mean of x times x's--
- or I can just write x squareds over here, minus the mean of x's squared.
- This is how we figured out the slope of our regression line.
- Or maybe a better way to think about it, if we assume in our regression line that
- the points we have were sampled from an entire universe of possible points,
- then you could say we're approximating the slope of our regression line.
- You might see this little hat notation in a lot of books.
- Don't want you to be confused.
- You're approximating the population's regression line from a sample of it.
- Now this right here is an estimate of the covariance of X and Y.
- Now what is this over here?
- Well, I just said, you could write this bottom part very easily as
- the mean of x times x-- that's the same thing as x squared--
- minus the mean of x times the mean of x. Right? That's what the mean of x squared is.
- What's this? Well, you can view this as the covariance of X with X.
- We've actually already seen this. I've actually shown you many, many videos ago
- when we first learnt about it what it is.
- The covariance of a random variable with itself
- is really just the variance of that random variable.
- You could verify it for yourself.
- If you change this Y to an X,
- this becomes (X-E[X])?(X-E[X]).
- Or that's the expected value of X-E[X] squared, that's the definition of variance.
- So another way of thinking about the slope of our regression line,
- it can be literally viewed as the covariance of our 2 random variables
- over the variance of X. You can kind of view it as the independent random variable.
- That right there is the slope of our regression line.
- Anyway, I thought that was interesting. And I want to make connections between
- things you see in different parts of statistics and show you that they really are connected.
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At 5:31, how is the moon large enough to block the sun? Isn't the sun way larger?
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