Maclaurin and Taylor series
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Maclaurin and Taylor Series Intuition
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Cosine Taylor Series at 0 (Maclaurin)
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Sine Taylor Series at 0 (Maclaurin)
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Taylor Series at 0 (Maclaurin) for e to the x
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Euler's Formula and Euler's Identity
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Complex number polar form intuition
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Multiplying and dividing complex numbers in polar form
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Powers of complex numbers
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Visualizing Taylor Series Approximations
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Generalized Taylor Series Approximation
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Visualizing Taylor Series for e^x
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Error or Remainder of a Taylor Polynomial Approximation
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Proof: Bounding the Error or Remainder of a Taylor Polynomial Approximation
Maclaurin and Taylor Series Intuition Approximating a function at 0 using a polynomial
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- I've drawn an arbitrary function here and what we're going to do is try to approximate this arbitrary
- function, we don't know what it is. Using a polynomial will keep on adding terms to that polynomial.
- But to do this we're going to assume that we can evaluate the function at zero that it gives us some
- value and that we can keep taking the derivative of the function and evaluating the first, the second,
- the third derivatives, so on and so forth at zero as well. So we're assuming that we know what F(0) is,
- we're assuming we know what F'(0) is, we're assuming that the second derivative of it is zero, we're
- assuming that we know the third derivative at zero. I'll write the third derivative as f prime prime at zero
- so forth and so on. So let's think of how we can approximate this using polynomials of ever increasing
- length. So we could have a polynomial of just one term. And it would just be a constant term. So this
- would be a polynomial of degree zero. And if we have a constant term, we at least want to might make that
- polynomial, it's just really a constant function, equal the function at F(0). So, at first maybe we just
- want P(0) where P is the polynomial that we want to construct. We want P(0) to be equal F(0).
- If we want to do that we can just set P(x) is equal to F(0).
- So if I were to graph it it will look like this. It will be just a horizontal line at F(0).
- And you can say Sal, that is a horrible approximation it only approximate at the function at this point
- Looks like we got lucky at a couple of other points but its really bad everywhere else
- And I will try to tell you try to do any better using a horizontal line
- at least we got it right at F(0) and this is just as good as we can do with just a constant.
- And even though this might not look like a constant we are assuming that given the function
- we can evaluate it at zero and that will just give us the number. So whatever number that was
- we would put right over here. And we would say P(x) is equal to that number. It will just be a horizontal
- line right there at F(0). But that is obviously not so great so lets add some more constraints.
- Beyond the fact that we want p(0) to be equal to f(0) lets say that we want also want p'(0) = f'(0)
- Let me do this in a new color. So we also want, in the new color, we also want, thats not a new color.
- We also want p', we want the first derivative of our polynomial while evaluated at zero to be the same
- thing as the first derivative of the function when evaluated at zero. And we don't wanna lose this right
- over here. So what if, what if we set p(x) as being equal to f(0), so we are taking our p(x) so we are
- going to add another term so the derivatives match up. Plus f'(0) times x. So lets think about this a
- little bit, so if we use this as our new polynomial what happens? p(0) what is p(0)? p(0) is going to
- be equal to, you're going to have f(0) + whatever this f prime (0) times zero. If you put a zero in for
- x this term is going just to be zero. So you're going to be left with p(0) = f(0). That's cool ;)
- That's just as good as our first version. Now what's the derivative over here?
- So the derivative is p'(x) =, take the derivative of this, and this is just a constant so its
- derivative is zero. And the derivative of a coefficient times x is going to be the coefficient.
- So its going to be f'(0). So if you evaluate it at zero so p' of zero or the derivative
- of our polynomial evaluated at zero. I know its a little weird because we are not using
- you know, we're doing, oh, p'(x), f'(0), but just remember, what's the variable
- what's the constant, and hopefully it'll make sense. So this is, obviously, going to be f'(0). Its derivative
- is a constant value. This is a constant value right here. We're assuming we can take the derivative
- of our function and evaluate that thing at 0 to give a constant value. So, if p'(x) is equal
- to this constant value then, obviously, p'(x) evaluated at 0 is going to be that value.
- But what's cool about this right here, this polynomial that has a zero-degree term
- and a first-degree term, is now, this polynomial is equal to our function at x = 0
- and it also has the same first derivative. It also has the same slope at x = 0 !
- So this thing will look, this new polynomial with two terms is getting a little bit better.
- It will look something like that. It will
- essentially have, it'll look like a tangent line at f(0), at x = 0. So, we're doing better,
- but still, not a super good approximation. It kind of is going in the same general direction
- as our function around 0, but maybe we can do better by making sure they have
- the same second derivative. And to try to have the same second derivative while
- still having the same first derivate and the same value at 0, let's try to do something interesting.
- Let's define p(x), let's make it clear, this was our first try.
- This is our second try, right over here, and I'm about to embark on our third try.
- So, in our third try, my goal is that the value of my polynomial is the same
- as the value of the function at 0, they have the same derivative at 0,
- and they also have the same second derivative at 0. So let's define my polynomial
- to be equal to, so I'm going to do the first two terms of these guys right over here.
- So it's going to be, f(0) plus f'(0) times x.
- So, exactly what we did here, but now let me add another term.
- I'll do the other term in another color. Plus, I'm going to be a one-half out here,
- and hopefully it might make sense why I'm about to do this.
- Plus one-half times f the second derivative of our function evaluated at 0 x squared.
- And when we evaluate the derivative of this, I think you'll see why this one-half is there.
- Because now, let's evaluate this and its derivatives at 0. So, if we evalute p(0),
- p(0) is going to be equal to what? Well, you have this constant term,
- if you evaluate it at 0, this x and this x^2 are both going to be 0, so
- those terms are going to go away. So p(0) is still equal to f(0).
- If you take the derivative of p(x), so let me take the derivative right here, I'll do it in yellow.
- So the derivative of my new p(x) is going to be equal to, so this term's going to go away,
- it's a constant term, it's going to be equal to f'(0), that's the coefficient on this,
- plus, this is the power rule right here, two times one-half
- is just one, plus f''(0) times x. Take the two, multiply it by one-half, and decrement that two right
- there. And I think you now have a sense of why we put the one-half there.
- it's making it so that we don't end up with a two coefficient out front.
- Now, what is p'(0)? p'(0) is what?
- Well, this term right here is going to be 0, so you're left with this constant value right here.
- So it's going to be f'(0). So, so far our third generation polynomial has all the properties
- of the first two. And let's see how it does on its third derivative.
- So, let's see, I should say, the second derivative. p''(x) is equal to,
- this is a constant, so it's derivative is 0, so then you just take the coefficient
- on this second term, is equal to f''(0). So what's the second derivative of p
- evaluated at 0? Well, it's just going to be this constant value, f''(0).
- So notice, by adding this term, not only is the polynomial value the same thing as our
- function value at 0, its derivative at 0 is the same thing as the derivative of our function at 0,
- and its second derivative at 0 is the same thing as the second derivative of the function at 0.
- And you might guess there's a pattern here – every term we add it'll allow us
- to set up the situation so that the nth derivative of our approximation at 0 will be the same thing
- as the nth derivative of our function at 0. So, in general, if we wanted to keep doing this,
- if we wanted to keep adding terms to our polynomial, we could, let me do this in a new color,
- we could make our polynomial approximation, so the first term will just be f(0),
- and the next term will be f'(0) times x. Then the next term will be f''() times one-half times x^2.
- Then the next term, if we want to make their third derivatives the same at 0, would be
- f'''(0), the third derivative of the function at 0, times one-half times one-third times x^3.
- And we can keep going, maybe you'll start to see a pattern here.
- Plus, if we want to make their fourth derivatives at 0 coincide, it would be
- the fourth derivative of the function, it's the fourth derivative at 0 times
- one over four times three times two, times x^4. And you can verify for yourself,
- If we had this only, and if you were to take the fourth derivative of this at 0,
- it would be the same thing as the fourth derivative of the function at 0.
- And in general, you can keep adding terms, where the nth term will look this:
- The nth derivative of your function evaluated at 0, times x^n over n factorial.
- Notice, this is the same thing as four factorial - four factorial is 4*3*2*1.
- This, right here, is three factorial, 3*2*1, this right here is two factorial, 2*1.
- This is the same thing as one factorial, the same thing as one.
- And you could divide this by zero factorial, which also happens to be one,
- but this general series, that I've kind of set up right here, is called the Maclaurin series.
- And you can approximate a polynomial and we'll see some pretty powerful results later on.
- But, what happens, and I don't have the computing power in my brain to draw the graph properly,
- when only the function is equal, you get that horizontal line. When you make the functions
- and, when you make the function equal at 0, and their first derivatives equal at 0, then you have
- something that looks like the tangent line. When you add another degree, it might approximate
- the polynomial something like this. When you add another degree, it might look something like that.
- And, as you keep adding more and more terms, it gets closer and closer around, especially
- as you get close to x = 0, but in theory, if you add an infinite number of terms,
- I haven't proven this to you, so that's why I'm saying it's in theory, but if you add an infinite
- number of terms, it should be, all of the derivatives should be the same, and then
- the functions should pretty much look like each other.
- In the next video, I'll do this with some actual functions, just so it makes a little more sense.
- And, just so you know, the Maclaurin series is a special case of the Taylor series, since we're
- centering it at 0. And when you're doing a Taylor series, you can pick any center point,
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At 5:31, how is the moon large enough to block the sun? Isn't the sun way larger?
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